Silas Marner Essay Example for Free

Silas Marner Essay In the book Silas marner, George Elliot uses many themes to bring the book alive and also to grasp the reader’s attention. Silas marner is written by a woman who named herself George Elliot as a mean to publish her novels. Themes are used in this novel to portray what George Elliot was trying to show the readers. One of the themes in Silas marner is class; being centered on two households, marner’s cottage by the stone pit and the Cass marner, the red house, these two settings represent class extremes. The cottage is showed as the ramshackle abode of the lowest member of raveloe society; the manor is a beautiful home filled with gentry and a location for dances. Elliot shows many intersections between the two households. Dunstan Cass, who is a member of the upper class, enters marner’s home looking for money. Silas marner who is from the lowest class and miserable, raises a squire’s granddaughter as his own child, despise the fact that she is from an upper class family. The rainbow tavern and the church in raveloe are also places where class differences are present. The rainbow is a different place when the â€Å"gentles† are having a dance (ch. six). In these times, the lesser villagers like mr. Macey, reign over the rainbow, telling stories. Secondly, at the church, the higher members of society sit in assigned seats at the front of the church while the rest of the villagers sit in the back and watch. In both these places, although everyone recognizes the status differences between the lower and higher class, this doesn’t not seem to be a problem in raveloe. In raveloe, strict boundaries of class do not necessarily lead to greater happiness among the higher classes. Those with money or those who have a little money tend to be the most harned and corrupt characters, such as Dunstan, Godfrey and even silas, before he found Eppie. The person in silas Marner who is most oppressed by circumstances, is Godfrey Cass, who finds himself at the mercy of a lower class wife, who fails to have children of his own and ends up envying the bond of a lowly weaver and his daughter. Silas and Eppie, on the other hand, though they do not have status or wealth, seem to enjoy unmitigated happiness. Nevertheless, being in a higher class shows that when there is a crime or something goes amiss you are never suspected because you are in a higher class so you would never stoop to those standards. For example, when silas’s gold was stolen, even though it was Dunstan Cass who was from the higher class who stole it, he was never suspected because he was in a higher class. Instead they suspected Jem Rodney, a low class peddler. Why did they suspect him and not someone from a higher class? Because being in a higher class, no one ever thinks you would do something like steal from a miser. Only because the higher class portrays an image as to having it all and are happy and perfect. Dunstan Cass is a clear example that even though you are in a higher class, you have that one person who does not uphold the standards and stoop lower than a lower class person would. Another theme of silas Marner is the nature of chance, and perhaps the only inference one can make about chance as read in the novel is that chance cannot be trusted. Everyone has good or bad turns but we never know which is which until later in life. Take into consideration when silas loses his gold, he thinks it is the worst thing that could ever happen to him. When you think about this, you realize it was one of the best things to happen to silas because losing his gold gave him a clear space in his life to love and take care of Eppie like she was his own. Looking at godfrey cass, he believes the death of his first wife and marner’s subsequent adoption of his daughter, was an amazing stroke of good fortune, but as we read and realized it turns out to be horribly the worst in the end. He ends up wanting his daughter Eppie in his life more than he wanted Nancy. Godfrey realizes it was wrong to pretend that Eppie was not his child, which he paid for in the end. We realize that chance is not so random after all but guided by the author. The characters end up meeting their faith, the good were rewarded or ended up lucky, while the bad were unlucky or punished. For instance Godfrey stated that he â€Å"passed for childless once† because he wanted to and, unfortunately, he â€Å"shall pass for childless now against his wish†. Even so, the novel also reflects the complexity of reality, and chance serves this purpose as well. Near the book’s end, the wise Marner says, despite his perfect happiness, â€Å"Things will change, whether we like it or not; things won’t go on for a long while just as they are and no difference†. Which means pain will come, joy will come, and no one can learn from each revolution of the wheel fortune.

Joseph Stalin :: essays research papers

Joseph Stalin’s official reign of terror ended with his death in 1953, but the effects of his autocratic rule continued for many years to follow. His lasting hold on the people of the former Soviet Union still lingers in a few brainwashed minds. In the article "Stalin’s Afterlife" and the movie "Russia’s War - Blood Upon the Snow", Stalin is portrayed as the monster really was and should be remembered as. It said in "Stalin’s Afterlife" that "Stalin’s policies created a holocaust greater than Hitler’s.", which unbelievably is true. The horror of the crimes Joseph Stalin committed against his own people is appalling. For example, Stalin’s plan for collectivization resulted in the death of twenty million people. The great five-year plan to turn the peasant farmers into one, huge farming community brought on famine, starvation and eventually death to twenty million peasant farmers. Another atrocity that Stalin was responsible for was the forced labor camps known as Gulags. "...the murderous forced labor camps of the Gulag archipelago - victimized tens of millions of innocent men, women, and children for more than 20 years." Millions of people were sent to the Gulag camps from 1939 through 1953, for the crime of doing absolutely nothing. There were "...eight million souls (a conservative estimate) who languished in Soviet concentration camps every year between 1939 and 1953." under the horrible conditions at the Gulags. Every year Stalin, in his paranoia sent millions of people off to their deaths. "Russia’s War - Blood Upon the Snow" brought into view a more detailed, personal account of Stalin’s atrocities. People recalling memories they had of what it was like to live under Stalin’s paranoid rule. During his five-year plans to become a more industrialized nation, Stalin had thousands of people forced into building the White Sea Canal. They were made to continue working until they dropped from exhaustion. When it was completed in 1933 the workers who were still left were drowned in the canal. Another paranoid act Stalin ordered to be carried out was the murder of over a thousand members of the seventeenth congress. When Stalin held a vote to elect who the general secretary would be, three hundred votes were against him. He feared that he would be overthrown by Sergei Kirov, who only received three votes against him. Joseph Stalin, over a short period had Kirov murdered as well as one thousand out of nineteen hundred sixty-six committee membe rs and ninety-eight out of one hundred and thirty-nine central committee members.

Consumer Attitudes Towards Counterfeit Products Essay

Counterfeit products and materials are knock-off, bootleg, pirated or other illegally produced materials that are produced and sold in violation of the Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) of others or in a manner that fraudulently represent their quality or origin (Porteus, 2002). Despite the various anti-counterfeit efforts of multinationals and international trade organizations, counterfeiting continue to pose a significant and growing threat to businesses, both in developed and developing countries (Vida, 2007; Maldonado and Hume, 2005). Vida (2007) observed that even in the face of technological advancements that facilitates easy recognition of genuine products, and the legal pressures buyers and sellers of counterfeit products, global businesses still lose billions of dollars to counterfeiters annually. The annual cost of counterfeiting is estimated at $200 billion and the international trade in counterfeit products is believed to account for between 3-5% of overall world trade. Most threatening is the fact that several bodies such as the International Anti-counterfeiting Coalition (IACC) and International Intellectual Property Institute (IIPI) agree that international trade in counterfeit product is booming. However, it should be emphasized that the total losses due to counterfeiting, annually, should not be measured in terms of the economic devastation caused to genuine product manufacturers, its effects on hundreds or thousands of jobs worldwide, increase in the cost of marketing genuine products, reduced brand equity and trademark owner reputation. Most importantly, the threat to consumer health and safety that counterfeit product poses cannot be overemphasized (Vida, 2007; Maldonado and Hume, 2005). Although, counterfeiting is a global problem, it appears to have a more significant effect on UAE for a number of reasons. Managing Intellectual Property, an internet magazine on counterfeiting, reports that while UAE is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, it is also renowned for luxury, tourism, business and rapid development. Particularly, its free trade zone that offers attractive incentives for business, especially due to its location at the centre of the Middle East and the Arab states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries also create the right environments for counterfeiters to market their products. The close proximity of the free trade zone to leading counterfeit producing Asian countries and its status as a transshipment hub also greatly increases the country’s problems with counterfeiting. A recent study carried out by PricewaterhouseCoopers and reported in the magazine stated that counterfeit products make up to 68. 5% of automobile parts in the market, with fake pharmaceuticals, the least hit sector, accounts for 0. 2% of products in the market. It is therefore very critical that all efforts must be directed towards reducing this menace, and obviously, reducing counterfeiting, must involve be from the supply or the demand side. Augusto de Matos, Ituassu & Rossi (2007) rightly contend that actions towards counterfeiting can arise from both supply and demand sides. While acting from the supply side include understanding the incentives, rationale and factors that encourage or influence people to engage in manufacturing counterfeits, the demand angle involves understanding consumer attitudes and willingness to purchase fake products (Vida, 2007). Authors have largely argued that the supply side of counterfeiting has received an undue amount of attention in recent times, with the demand side largely ignored. Also, it is an established economic fact that supply is driven by demand; it is safe to suggest that the increase in global counterfeit trades is partly driven by the increasing consumer demands for cheap, substandard products. For example, the rise in the market for non-deceptive counterfeit products strengthens this argument. Thus, understanding the demand side could be the most important tool in fighting counterfeiting globally. In this regard, this paper, therefore, intends to investigate consumer attitudes or willingness to purchase counterfeit products in Abu Dhabi using a questionnaire approach to unravel the various factors and influences that shape consumer attitudes and behaviors when it comes to purchasing counterfeit products. Theoretical Framework Vida (2007) noted that since the mid 1990s when Elisabeth Hirschman, expressed the need for researchers to explore the ‘dark-side’ of consumer behaviors, literatures investigating and explaining the various factors that influence consumer purchase behaviors, especially with regard to illegal or counterfeit products, have increased considerably. Building on the â€Å"willingness to pay† concept, Vida conceived explored consumers’ willingness to purchase fake products. The author contended that demographic and socio-economic factors like age, gender, education, marital status, income and religiosity shape consumers’ attitude towards counterfeits, innovativeness (desire to be unique) and social pressure. These three, in turn, influence consumers’ willingness to purchase counterfeit products. Also, Xuemei and Veloutsou (2005) in their exploratory study, also reports that personal and social factors significantly influence consumers’ purchase behaviors. The authors contended that personal and social factors such as: value consciousness, normality susceptibility, novelty seeking and collectivism, and five attitude measures: reliability of the product in question, functionality of the product, recognized social benefits of purchasing the product, risks of purchasing and legality of purchasing, influence consumer purchase of counterfeit products. The study found that novelty seeking significantly influences consumer purchase of counterfeits products due to the similar or sometimes, superior quality of counterfeit products. Moreover, in a more elaborate study, Augusto de Matos, Ituassu and Rossi (2007) also found that price quality inference and previous experience, among others, significantly increases the chances of consumers purchasing fake products. This study, drawing from the findings of the studies mentioned above, contends that a consumer attitude towards counterfeit product greatly influences their purchase behavior. It also hypotheses that previous experience with safety concerns, quality of counterfeits with respect to the price, and the intention to use counterfeits to test the product before purchasing the genuine brands, shape consumer attitudes towards counterfeit and subsequently, their purchasing of counterfeit products. Augusto de Matos, Ituassu and Rossi (2007) rightly point out that quality and price are two fundamental factors that shape consumer purchase behavior. Traditionally, consumers believe that lower priced products are of lower quality, and this is largely the case with deceptive counterfeit products. However, with non-deceptive counterfeits products, consumers are offered products of similar or superior quality, compared to the genuine products, at lower prices. The combination of low price and high quality is bound to improve consumer attitudes towards counterfeits. For this reason, it is expected that: Counterfeits with superior quality enhances consumers’ perception and attitudes towards counterfeit products. Safety concerns are one of the most important issues with counterfeit products. These products have been known to pose significant threat to consumer health and safety, especially when it concerns medications and household items. However, not all consumers consider counterfeit goods to be unsafe or dangerous. It is expected that: Consumers who consider counterfeit goods to be unsafe and dangerous will have unfavorable attitudes towards counterfeit products, and vice versa. Lastly, novelty seeking can also influence consumer attitude towards counterfeit products. This feeling refers to individuals’ need for a sense of worth or social recognition; people always want to be seen as special and capable of affording material things. The increasing materialism in the world means that people that cannot afford the finer things of life feel unworthy. Since the presence of cheaper and yet quality counterfeit products provide the opportunity to afford these luxuries, individuals in the lower economic range are often willing to purchase such counterfeit products. Thus, it is expected that the sense of novelty influences consumer attitude towards counterfeit products. Method To investigate the influence of the factors discussed above on consumer attitude towards purchasing counterfeit products, this study surveyed a cross section of individuals in the city regarding their perceptions of counterfeit products. The research instrument adopted was questionnaire. The questionnaires, consisting of a hundred direct questions in Likert scale style, varying from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree), were distributed to students on campus at several shopping centers. Because the questionnaires, in most cases, were self administered, respondents were encouraged to answer all the questions provided. Due to this, a total of 95 valid and usable questionnaires were collected at the end of the survey. Of the 95, 30 were below 20years old, 45 between 21 and 25 years old, with the rest above 26years old. With respect to education, more than half of the respondent had at least high school certificate, and interestingly, almost all of them (about 80%) had purchased counterfeit product in the past. Results Table I below presents the total number of questionnaires collated and the mean of responses for each of the variables under investigation. As presented in the table, the mean of respondents who rated superior quality, inexpensive trials and novelty as important factors for considering counterfeit products were 4. 4674, 4. 2211 and 4. 0053 respectively; while the respective standard deviation were 1. 16843, 1. 35759, 1. 17881 N Attitude Superior Quality Tryout Novelty Valid 95 92 95 93 Missing 0 3 0 2 Mean 3. 5447 4. 4674 4. 2211 4. 0053 Std Deviation 1. 33188 1. 16843 1. 35759 1. 17881 Minimum 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 1. 00 Maximum 7. 00 7. 00 7. 00 7. 00 Table I To further measure the influence of these variables on consumer attitude towards counterfeit products, correlation coefficient was calculated for the variables. The result indicated that all three variables significantly influenced consumer attitudes, with superior quality presenting the most significant influence. For superior quality, r = . 668, r = . 395 for counterfeit products as tryouts, r = . 653 for novelty (correlation is significant at the 0. 01 level for all variables . ) As obvious from the three scatter diagrams above, this study found a significant correlation between the superior quality of counterfeit products and consumers’ favorable attitude towards purchasing such goods. Also, the study showed that consumers see cheap counterfeit goods as an opportunity to tryout products before purchasing them or in other cases, as a better opportunity to own products they, otherwise, will not be able to purchase. Discussion and Recommendations Counterfeiting is a growing global menace resulting in the loss of several billions of dollars annually. In finding the right tool to fight this menace, researchers and policy makers have focused on either the supply side or demand side of the problem, although, there seem to be more attention on the supply side. This paper argued that demand is a major driver of supply and that by understanding the reasons and factors that encourage demand for counterfeits, the fight against counterfeiters will take a different and better dimension. In truth to this assertion, several authors have investigated the personal and social factors that influence demand for counterfeit products. In contribution, this study investigated the influence of three variables: superior quality of counterfeit products, using counterfeit goods as inexpensive trials before purchasing genuine ones, and novelty seeking impulses. The result of this study established the hypotheses proposed earlier that these variables significantly influence demand for counterfeit products. It is an established fact that price and quality are two major determinants of consumer purchase behavior. However, by presenting consumers with superior quality products at lower prices, the tendency to purchase these counterfeits products will be considerably higher than the genuine product, because in doing so; the individuals will be receiving higher value for lesser money than if they have purchased the original. It, thus, becomes easier for consumers to rationalize their actions. The case is also similar for the two other variables, counterfeit products offer consumers the chance of buying products they, ordinarily, will not be able to afford, or the opportunity to try the product before purchasing the original. In both cases, consumers are saving money and achieving their objectives. Recommendations It is apparent that, among other things, price and quality significantly drive demand for counterfeit products. Manufacturers of genuine should strive to provide consumers with products of similar or even quality, compared to fakes, at reasonable prices. Manufacturers should also stress the fact that by purchasing fakes, consumers are increasing the cost of genuine products and destroying the jobs of several others. For as Xuemei and Veloutsou (2005) pointed out, consumers are also influenced by the desire to be accepted by significant others, by emphasizing the moral aspect of purchasing fakes, manufacturers can significantly discourage consumers from purchasing counterfeit products. Conclusion Although, counterfeiting is a serious global problem, very little is known about why consumers choose to patronize such fake products. This study has shown that the superior quality of some fake products, their lower price, which enable consumers to try them out before buying genuine ones or to own products they would not have been able to afford, greatly improve consumer attitudes towards counterfeit products. It is recommended that manufacturers should strive to meet the quality and price of counterfeits to reduce the demand for fake products. References Augusto de Matos, C. , Ituassu, C. T. and Rossi, C. A. V. (2007), Consumer attitudes toward counterfeits: a review and extension, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 24 No. 1 pp. 36-47. Maldonado, C. and Hume, E. (2005), Attitudes toward counterfeit products: an ethical perspective, Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues, Jan-July. Managing Intellectual Property (2008), How to tackle fakes in the UAE, Available at http://www. managingip. com/Article/1940730/How-to-tackle-fakes-in-the-UAE. html (Dec 13 2008). Porteous, S. D. (1998), Organized Crime Impact Study Highlights, Paper Prepared for Public Works and Government Services of Canada, Cat. No. JS42-83/1998. Xuemei, B. and Veloutsou, C. (2005), Consumers’ attitudes regarding non-deceptive counterfeit brands in the UK & China, Brand Management, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 211-222. Vida, I. (2007), Determinants of Consumer Willingness to Purchase Non-Deceptive Counterfeit Products, Managing Global Transitions, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 253–270.

Using A After Certain Verbs Before Infinitives

Having trouble explaining the a in the following sentence?  Ã‚ ¿Quieres aprender a jugar baloncesto? Would it be the same explanation as the personal a or is it just like the English to play basketball? Or neither of these? 'A' After a Verb Before Infinitives There very well may be an explanation here, but Im not sure what it is other than thats the way it is. There are certain verbs, and aprender is one of them, that need to be followed by a when followed by an infinitive. Why Spanish would use aspirà ¡bamos a nadar (with an a) for we aspired to swim but querà ­amos nadar (no a) for we wanted to swim appears arbitrary. There appear to be no clear rules to indicate when a verb needs to have an a before a subsequent infinitive, although verbs that indicate some sort of motion — such as venir (to come) and llegar (to leave) — usually do. So do some verbs that indicate a change in action, such as empezar (to begin). Following are the most common verbs that should be followed by a before an infinitive. Note that many of the verbs listed have more than one meaning; the meaning given is one that is often intended when the verb is followed by a and an infinitive: Acceder (to agree to): Los empresarios accedieron a estudiar las demandas de salario. The employers agreed to study the salary demands. Acercarse (to approach): Josà © se acercà ³ a ver si yo estaba bien. Jose approached in order to see if I was OK. Acostumbrarse (to be used to): No me acostumbro a perder. Im not used to losing. Alcanzar (to manage to): No alcanzaba a comprenderlo. I wasnt able to understand it. Aprender (to learn): Los hackers aprenden a camuflar el cà ³digo de sus ataques. Hackers are learning to camouflage their attack coding. Apresurarse (to hurry): Me apresurà © a leer algunos de los volà ºmenes de la serie. I hurried to read some volumes in the series. Aspirar (to aspire): Carlos aspiraba a ser senador. Carlos aspired to be a senator. Bajarse (to get down, lower oneself): Todos se bajaron a observar el fenà ³meno. Everyone got down to see the phenomenon. Comenzar (to begin): Comienzas a pensar. Youre beginning to think. Comprometerse (to promise): Se comprometieron a bajar los precios. They promised to lower prices. Decidirse (to decide): Me decidà ­ a comprarlo. I decided to buy it. Dedicarse (to devote oneself): me dedico a hacer otro tipo de humor. I am dedicating myself to do another type of humor. Detenerse (to stop): Por eso me detuve a leerlo. Thats why I stopped to read it. Echar (to begin): Cuando salieron se echaron a correr. When they left they began to run. Empezar (to begin):  ¿Cuà ¡ndo empezarà © a sentirme mejor? When will I begin to feel better? Inclinarse (to be inclined): Me inclino a leer lo mejor de la literatura de autoayuda. I am inclined to read the best of the self-help literature. Ir (to go):  ¿Quieres saber cà ³mo vas a morir? Do you want to know how youre going to die? Llegar (to arrive, to succeed): Llegaremos a tener à ©xito. We will arrive at having success. Negarse (to refuse): Al principio se negà ³ a dar su nombre. At first, he refused to give his name. Parar (to stop): Pararon a comprar tortillas. They stopped to buy tortillas. Pasar (to come in): Pasaron a hablar con à ©l. They came in to talk with him. Ponerse (to start): Se puso a hablar en tercera persona. He began to talk in the third person. Quedarse (to remain): Nos quedamos a vivir con mi papà ¡. We stayed to live with my father. Resignarse (to resign oneself): Me resignà © a ser và ­ctima. I resigned myself to being a victim. Resistirse (to resist): Se resistià ³ a ser detenido. He resisted being arrested. Romper (to suddenly begin): La pobre mujer rompià ³ a llorar. The poor woman broke out crying. Sentarse (to sit down): Nos sentamos a platicar sobre cualquier cosa. We sat down to chat about all sorts of things. Tender (to tend to):  ¿Por que las mujeres siempre tienden a enamorarse tan rà ¡pido? Why do women always tend to fall in love so fast? Venir (to come): Vinieron a ganar dinero. They came to earn money. Volver (to do again): No volverà © a ser joven. Im not going to be young again.

The Changing Of The Guard The New Face Of It Ethics

The Changing of the Guard: The New Face of IT Ethics in Younger Generations In America Ask anyone what ethics means and the number of different answers will likely equal the number of different people that were asked. One person may say that ethics are like lines in the sand that establish right from wrong. Another may use that same description to define morals or principles. A company might have a specific view of what is considered ethical and not broach the subject of morals. Most individuals, however, mix the meaning of ethics, morals, integrity, principles and values into a blanket concept that covers the idea of how people ought to be; and this is rightly done, as the reality is that although there are specific distinctions and†¦show more content†¦Much of the complexity comes from the fact that an answer can be different from person to person. Also, different types of ethics, such as business and corporate ethics, may be judged by different criteria than personal ethics. Oftentimes there may be no clear answer, and so both good and bad apply (Reyn olds, 2015). To further complicate the issue, consider that what was ethical to prior generations may not be so for younger generations, and so the answer can change over time or generationally. An example of this generational shift can be found when, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act ended segregation. It was brought about by a generation of youth that encompassed a social perspective that recognized segregation as unethical and unlawful. However, the concept of segregation was considered ethical to three generations of citizens prior to that. In fact, only 68 years earlier, in Plessy vs. Ferguson, the Supreme Court mirrored the societal ethics of the time and ruled in favor of segregation (Plessy vs. Ferguson, 1896). Another broad example is the shift in privacy ethics during recent years. Since the invention of the telephone, there have been concerns regarding the potential abuse and unethical uses of information technology (IT). Laws were passed early on, such as the Communications Act of 1934, to deal with growing concerns regarding privacy. Throughout the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, laws such as the Wiretap Act and

The Purpose Of Friendship - 1304 Words

Joseph Thielemann Professor Baker Intro to Philosophy 13 April 2015 The Purpose of Friendship We all have friends that we enjoy spending time with, but we do not seem to think heavily as to why we have these friends. These relationships are not necessary to survival; all that is needed for our physical body to survive is food and water, yet people want to create long-lasting friendships with people they cherish. In his work, Lysis, Plato says that that friendship is the least of natural loves, ones which we do not need to reproduce. C.S. Lewis complements this by describing friendship as â€Å"unnecessary, like philosophy, like art.... It has no survival value; rather it is one of those things which give value to survival.† Many early†¦show more content†¦Bennett Helm describes friendship as â€Å"a distinctive kind of concern for your friend, a concern which might reasonably be understood as a kind of love.† I believe friendship is a greater form of an acquaintance. With an acquaintance you will exchange greetings whenever you happen to meet and maybe have a small conversation, but that is where the effort of becoming a friend stops. A quality friendship is where each person cares for the other to succeed, enjoys going out of their way to spend quality time with the other, and deeply care for the other’s health. Is that all there is to friendship?Are there any other forms of friendship? Aristotle says that there are different types of friendships. He divides friendship into three different variants. The first is a friendship based upon utility. Utility is the quality or state of being useful This friendship is easily seen as the weakest of the three because it is a selfish form of friendship based around personal gain. The second kind of friendship is one based upon pleasure. The people in this type of relationship are only drawn to the others physical qualities. These friendships are each seen as weak because the people only continue the friendship for what they can get out of it. Due to this, th ese types of friendships to not last very long. The last kind of friendship is the strongest and most caring. Aristotle states that the final

The Impact of Microorganisms on Human Affairs free essay sample

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms or microbes. The word micro means small in Greek, implying that microbes are very minute or small life forms that cannot be seen with just the naked eye. One would need a microscope to see these small life forms. Microbes are everywhere and have a large impact on the world. It all started when one of the most important discoveries in history was made in 1665. Englishman, Robert Hooke discovered â€Å"little boxes† or â€Å"cells† in a slice of cork through the microscope and explained that these were life’s smallest structural unit (Tortora et al, 2010). This event marked the beginning of the cell theory, that all living things are composed of cells. As expected in the scientific world, a new finding leads to a cascade of experiments to expand on the newly discovered facts. This was shown when Anton Van Leeuwenhoek made the first observation of live microbes though a microscope that he designed himself. Van Leeuwenhoek used rain water, his feces, and his teeth scrapings to make observations from the microbes. For a few years after Van Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries the majority of the world believed that microorganisms spontaneously generated, which means that life forms came from nonliving matter such as toads and mice (Tortora et al, 2010). It was not until the discoveries of Louis Pasteur in 1861 that the theory of spontaneous generation was challenged and the call theory was confirmed. Pasteur resolved this issue by creating experiments demonstrating that microbes are present in the air and can contaminate sterile solutions, but the air itself cannot create microbes. The experiments contained beef broth in several flasks. Some were sealed after being boiled and the rest were kept open after they were boiled. The flasks that were kept open in the air accumulated microbes whereas the flasks that were sealed did not. Pasteur then followed up his first experiment by doing another experiment. He used the same principle, except he used a flask with an S-shaped neck that allowed air to pass through but the design of the flask trapped any bacteria in the neck. After boiling and allowing the broth to cool, there were no signs of microbial growth (Tortora et al, 2010). The final step toward identifying as a source of disease came with the findings or Robert Koch in 1881. Koch, using a series of observations, later known as Koch’s Postulates, found that specific microbes cause specific diseases. He proved that bacteria causes disease by observing animals for the presence of Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax. He found that this bacterium was in the blood of the cow that had died from anthrax. Koch then retrieved the bacteria from the cow, grew it on pure culture, injected it into a healthy animal, and waited to see if the healthy animal had the same results. Like he thought, the animal became infected and Koch was able to isolate the same organism from the newly diseased animal. This process is still used today in the detection of microorganisms being responsible for causing disease (Tortora et al, 2010). These scientists and their experiments laid the foundation for the discovery of an unknown world and quickly became life changing. Before one can understand the impact of Microbes on human affairs, one must be aware of the types of microorganisms there are in this world. Microbes consist of six groups: Bacteria, Archaea, Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, and Viruses. These groups are very different but are similar in that they are small in size. Furthermore these groups are divided into two different groups: Eukaryotic and prokaryotic, excluding viruses. Fungi, Algae, and Protozoa are classified as Eukaryotic which means they are multicellular and include a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotic in which they are unicellular and do not have a nucleus nor membrane-bound organelles. Viruses do not belong is either group because they are noncellular. In fact, they require a cell host in order to replicate. Some unique characteristics about microbes are that they are ubiquitous, dominant, diverse, and free living. Since the experiments of the great scientists such as Pasteur and Koch, the world of microbiology has taken great strides in understanding the impact that microbes have on the world, whether beneficial or destructive. A period from 1857 to 1914 was called â€Å"The Golden Age of Microbiology† which marked the beginning of rapid advances and discoveries such as vaccines for disease to fermentation and pasteurization. This period came to be one of the most influential and ever-changing sciences in the world today. If it wasn’t for the first experiments in the field, we would not know that microorganisms are the main cause of most diseases in the world. We all live in a world filled with microbes from birth to death and we have numerous microorganisms on our bodies as well as inside of our bodies. These microorganisms are known as normal microbiota or normal flora. These microorganisms benefit us in that it prevents us from being sick all the time. They also produce growth factors such as Vitamin K and folic acid. Though these microbiota live in harmony with their host under normal conditions, they can be harmful if they find their way into different parts of the body or a different habitat. These microbes would be considered pathogenic or disease-causing, and are not exclusive to the body’s normal flora. An example of a normal microbiota that becomes harmful when introduced into a foreign environment is the bacterium Escherichia coli. This bacterium is normally found in the colon. The bacterium may come in contact with the stomach by ingestion and certain strains can cause food poisoning which leads to diarrhea, dehydration, and discomfort. Some diseases thought to be noninfectious may involve microbial infections such as Helicobacter pylori. This common bacterium is pathogenic and affect about half the world’s population. This bacterium has been known to be the cause of gastric ulcers in the upper GI tract (The Normal Bacterial Flora of Humans). Immunocompromised people are at a greater risk for infections especially respiratory infections such as pneumonia. Since their immune systems are very weak, they are susceptible to many diseases. There are several ways that these bacterium can be transmitted into the host and cause infection. The causative agents of disease can be transmitted into the host by three routes: contact, vehicles, and vectors. The most popular method of transmitting disease is by contact. Contact can be divided into three types which are direct contact, indirect contact, and droplet transmission. Direct contact is also known as person-to-person transmission where there is physical contact involved such as touching or kissing. The common cold, staphylococcal infections, hepatitis A and other infections can be transmitted during direct contact. Indirect contact involves transmission of the pathogen through a fomite, or inanimate object that is a reservoir for pathogens. The use of drinking bottles and eating utensils are good examples of indirect contact transmission. Finally, droplet transmission involves the spread of microorganisms by way of mucus droplets. The primary way this transmission occurs is through coughing and sneezing. The Vehicle transmission is when the disease is transmitted by a medium such as water, food, or air. Waterborne infections normally travel through poorly filtered water systems or sewage systems. Diseases such as cholera, waterborne shigellosis, and leptospirosis are transmitted through waterborne transmission. In foodborne transmission disease is transmitted by undercooked meat or poorly refrigerated. Airborne diseases usually involve droplet transmission or dust particles that can be spread in the air. Air filters are becoming more effective in preventing airborne transmission, however, still some pathogens are small enough to escape the filter (Tortora et al, 2010). The last route of transmission is vector transmission. A vector is another source, typically an insect, in which the pathogen reproduces before being transmitted into the host. Ticks and mosquitos are most often responsible for causing diseases via vector transmission. Some diseases that they cause include the West Nile Virus, which causes West Nile encephalitis. This disease is carried by mosquitoes. Another popular disease caused by this type of transmission is Lyme disease and this is carried by ticks. The cause of transmission results in either emerging infectious diseases or re-emerging infectious diseases. An emerging infectious disease is a disease that is new or is increasing in incidence whereas a re-emerging infectious disease is a disease that has already been described and has existed for years but is all of a sudden presenting reappearance. An example of an emerging infectious disease is the West Nile Virus. This is typically due to evolutionary changes in the existing o rganism where they are introduced to a new geographic region or populations. The West Nile Virus, as mentioned earlier, is carried by birds and is transmitted between birds and to horses and humans by mosquitos. This virus causes inflammation to the brain. Other symptoms include flu-like symptoms such as headache, fever, and body aches (West Nile Virus). An example of a re-emerging disease would be tuberculosis or cholera. Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection that involves the lungs as well as other parts of the body like the brain, kidneys or spine. TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is contagious. There are two types of TB: primary TB and secondary TB. People who have primary TB are exposed for the first time whereas people who have secondary TB have already been infected previously. TB can spread very easily by breathing in air droplets that contain the tubercle bacillus from a cough or a sneeze of the infected person. Most people with primary TB are asymptomatic which means they do not have any symptoms or show any signs that they have TB. This bacterium is shown in people who have HIV or AIDS or other immunodeficiency disorders because their immune system is no good and cannot fight of the bacteria. Usually people who develop progressive disease have symptoms that are insidious and non-specific such as weight loss, fatigue, fever, and night sweats so they cannot tell right away that they have this disease (Porth, 2011). Secondary TB is often found in people who have impaired body defense mechanisms such as elderly people and infants. This time around the disease is much more serious and the upper lung lobes are most affected http://www. cdc. gov/tb/topic/basics/default. htm http://www. cdc. gov/tb/topic/basics/default. htm One way to get tested for TB is by the TB test or PPD. If the test is positive it does not mean that it is positive. It just means that the person has been exposed to TB. Not everyone that has been infected with TB gets sick. TB bacteria can live in the body without showing any symptoms; this is called latent TB infection. In this case, people who are infected have a good immune system that is able to fight off the bacteria and keep it from growing. These people also cannot spread the disease to others, however, if the body fails to fight off the bacteria it will grow and multiply and will cause the person to be sick with TB disease. At this point the disease is contagious and can be spread to other people. In rare cases, people who have latent TB never end up with TB disease and some people may have latent TB and will not get the disease years later. A major risk factor that could contribute to getting this disease would be living in crowded or unsanitary conditions because there are more people and therefore more chance of breathing in someone else’s air droplets. One cannot get the disease by just shaking someone’s hand or by sharing a drink. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, a total of 10,521 TB cases were reported in the United States in 2011. However, there has been a significant decline since 2010. In fact, this has been the lowest rate recorded since reporting began in 1953. Although numbers of TB cases are gradually decreasing in the United States, outbreaks of TB in homeless shelters are rising. In January 2010, public health officials found an outbreak of TB among three overnight guests at a homeless shelter in Illinois and were diagnosed with TB disease.